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Arcus Center for Social Justice Leadership / Studio Gang . Image © Steve Hall for Hedrich Blessing
塑造空間：壁爐在建筑史中的演變與影響
Shaping Spaces: The History and Impact of Fireplaces in Architecture
由專筑網Zia，小R編譯
壁爐深刻地塑造了建筑設計，影響著空間的布局、體驗和感知方式。它們不僅僅是功能元素，更是權力、社群、舒適和文化的象征，追溯著人類與建成環境不斷演變的關系。從標志早期人類定居點的原始爐膛，到當代建筑中復雜的生態設計，壁爐反映了更廣泛的文化、社會和技術變遷，在建筑的空間敘事中充當著持久的焦點。學者們經常探討建筑與火之間的緊密聯系。路易斯·費爾南德斯-加利亞諾（Luis Fernández-Galiano）在其開創性著作《Fire and Memory: On Architecture and Energy》中提出，建筑從根本上調解著人類與能源之間的關系。通過理解這些結構如何塑造空間、象征文化價值并推動技術創新，我們能更深入地洞察建筑在形式、功能與意義之間復雜的相互作用。
空間秩序與象征意義
對火的掌控標志著人類最具決定性的轉折點之一，在空間和象征意義上深刻影響了早期建筑。最初，在原始居所中，火提供了必要的溫暖和保護，但也成為了一個公共焦點，家庭生活和集體儀式都圍繞著它進行。考古發現，如位于特拉·阿瑪塔（法國）、Bolomor（西班牙）和Çatalhöyük（土耳其）的那些精心布置的爐膛，揭示了這些早期壁爐對于生活空間構建、活動區域的劃分，并促進社區內的社會凝聚力。它們具有策略性的布局突顯了一種萌芽的建筑意識，反映了人類圍繞熱舒適和集體體驗來構建環境的最初嘗試。
Fireplaces have profoundly shaped architectural design, influencing how spaces are organized, experienced, and perceived. More than merely functional elements, they represent symbols of power, community, comfort, and culture, tracing humanity's evolving relationship with the built environment. From the primitive hearths that characterized early human settlements to the sophisticated ecological designs of contemporary architecture, fireplaces have reflected broader cultural, social, and technological changes, serving as enduring focal points in the spatial narrative of architecture. Scholars have frequently explored the intimate relationship between architecture and fire. Luis Fernández-Galiano, in his seminal work "Fire and Memory: On Architecture and Energy" argues that architecture fundamentally mediates the relationship between humanity and energy. By understanding how these structures have shaped spaces, symbolized cultural values, and driven technological innovation, we gain deeper insight into architecture's complex interplay between form, function, and meaning.
Spatial Order and Symbolic Meaning
The control of fire marks one of humanity's most decisive turning points, significantly influencing early architecture spatially and symbolically. Initially, in primitive dwellings, the fire provided essential warmth and protection but became a communal focal point around which domestic life and collective rituals revolved. Archaeological discoveries, such as the carefully positioned hearths in Terra Amata (France), Bolomor (Spain), and Çatalhöyük (Turkey), reveal how these early fireplaces structured living spaces, defined activity zones, and facilitated social cohesion within communities. Their strategic placement highlights an emerging architectural awareness, reflecting humanity's earliest attempts to structure environments around thermal comfort and collective experience.
Terra Amata Archaeological discoveries. Image © Oscar Rapaz, via Wikipedia under CC BY-SA 4.0
建筑與可控熱能之間的這種根本關系，在羅馬文明中因火炕供暖系統（hypocaust）的發明而取得了顯著進步。這種創新的中央供暖機制利用地板下的空腔和垂直墻內的煙道，徹底改變了建筑的構思、設計和居住方式。通過高效分配熱量，它重塑了內部空間層級，實現了更高程度的建筑復雜性和舒適性，同時也為建筑設計樹立了一個持久的先例，將熱管理深深嵌入該學科不斷演進的話語和實踐之中。
文藝復興的和諧與建筑核心性
文藝復興重新定義了建筑、幾何與人體比例之間的關系，在這一框架下，壁爐獲得了象征性和構圖上的重要性。它曾以功能性為主，如今則成為一種建筑手段，用以表達秩序與對稱的理想。隨著家庭室內空間日益規范化，爐膛在物理上和象征意義上都錨定了房間，體現了穩定性和空間連貫性。
This fundamental relationship between architecture and controlled heat saw remarkable advancement in Roman civilization through the invention of the hypocaust system. An innovative central heating mechanism employing subfloor cavities and vertical wall flues, the hypocaust transformed how buildings were conceived, designed, and occupied. By efficiently distributing heat, it reshaped interior spatial hierarchies, enabling new degrees of architectural complexity and comfort but also set an enduring precedent in architectural design, embedding thermal management deeply into the discipline's evolving discourse and practice.
Renaissance Harmony and Architectural Centrality
The Renaissance redefined the relationship between architecture, geometry, and human proportion, and within this framework, the fireplace gained symbolic and compositional significance. Once primarily utilitarian, it became an architectural device through which ideals of order and symmetry were expressed. As domestic interiors grew more formalized, the hearth anchored rooms both physically and symbolically, embodying stability and spatial coherence.
Hypocaust under the floor in a Roman villa in Vieux-la-Romaine, near Caen, France. Image © Pascal RADIGUE, via Wikipedua under CC BY-SA 4.0
安德烈亞·帕拉第奧（Andrea Palladio）的Casa Cogollo住宅詮釋了這一角色：壁爐并非裝飾品，而是作為結構和視覺的軸線而存在。它以數學般的精確度定位，平衡了房間比例，與立面開口對齊，并強化了空間和諧。這種對構圖清晰度的關注反映了維特魯威原則的影響，這些原則在文藝復興時期得以重新詮釋，強調建筑元素與人文主義對秩序和美的追求之間的契合。
萊昂·巴蒂斯塔·阿爾伯蒂（Leon Battista Alberti）在《論建筑》（De Re Aedificatoria）中，將壁爐稱為一個不可或缺的建筑構件，應精心定位并賦予其應有的尊嚴。對阿爾伯蒂而言，壁爐不僅是一種功能必需品，也是一種表現手段——它的位置、尺度和裝飾訴說著其所服務家庭的價值觀和抱負。它既是一種空間工具，也是一個文化符號。
Andrea Palladio's Casa Cogollo illustrates this role: the fireplace serves not as decoration, but as a structural and visual axis. Positioned with mathematical precision, it balances room proportions, aligns with façade openings, and reinforces spatial harmony. This concern for compositional clarity reflects the influence of Vitruvian principles, reframed during the Renaissance to emphasize the alignment between architectural elements and the humanist pursuit of order and beauty.
Leon Battista Alberti, in De Re Aedificatoria, referred to the fireplace as an integral architectural component that should be carefully positioned and treated with dignity. For Alberti, the fireplace was not only a functional necessity but also a representational device — its placement, scale, and ornamentation spoke to the values and aspirations of the household it served. It was a spatial tool as much as a cultural symbol.
Casa Cogollo, Claudio Gioseffi. Image © Claudio Gioseffi, via Wikipedia under CC BY-SA 4.0
在理論之外，文藝復興時期的室內空間顯示出對壁爐裝飾潛力的日益重視。壁爐架由大理石或石灰巖雕刻而成，常常飾以寓言人物、紋章標志或古典主題。這些壁爐可見于遍布意大利的別墅以及日益增多的法國城堡中，其宏偉氣勢傳達了權力、血統和優雅品味。在諸如美第奇-里卡迪宮（Palazzo Medici Riccardi）或布盧瓦城堡（Château de Blois）這樣的空間中，壁爐主宰著視覺領域，吸引著注意力，標志著火從一種必需品轉變為一種宣言。
Beyond theory, Renaissance interiors show a growing investment in the decorative potential of the fireplace. Mantels were carved in marble or limestone, often featuring allegorical figures, heraldic emblems, or classical motifs. The grandeur of these fireplaces — visible in villas across Italy and increasingly in French châteaux — conveyed power, lineage, and cultivated taste. In spaces such as the Palazzo Medici Riccardi or the Château de Blois, fireplaces dominate the visual field, commanding attention and signaling a shift from fire as a necessity to fire as a statement.
Château de Blois, fireplace. Image © Shadowgate, via Wikipedia under CC BY 2.0
這種演變與家庭室內空間作為展示場所的興起相吻合。文藝復興時期的住宅不僅是生活空間，更是展示教育、修養和地位的舞臺。壁爐通常是房間里最大、裝飾最精美的物件，它體現了這一轉變，成為建筑吸收并反映當時文化抱負的媒介。正是通過壁爐，溫暖、文化與建筑在物質上融為一體——這是一個能量、裝飾與社會意義的交匯點，其影響將延續至近代早期。
家居性、工業與重構
工業革命標志著壁爐在建筑和文化角色上的一個轉折點。隨著新技術的出現以及煤炭成為城市環境中的主要能源，壁爐設計也隨之調整，以滿足在效率、清潔度和規模方面不斷變化的需求。鑄鐵內膽和由本杰明·湯普森（Benjamin Thompson）開發的Rumford fireplace等創新反映了這一轉變。這些新模型旨在減少煙霧并提高熱效率，顯著改善了家庭供暖的性能，標志著與前工業時代龐大而低效的壁爐的明顯決裂。
This evolution coincides with the rise of the domestic interior as a place of representation. The Renaissance home was not only a space for living but a stage for displaying education, refinement, and status. The fireplace, often the largest and most elaborately framed object in the room, embodied this shift, becoming a medium through which architecture absorbed and reflected the cultural ambitions of its time. It was through the fireplace that warmth, culture, and architecture were materially fused — an intersection of energy, ornament, and social meaning that would echo into the early modern period.
Domesticity, Industry, and the Reconfiguration
The Industrial Revolution marked a turning point in the architectural and cultural role of fireplaces. As new technologies emerged and coal became the dominant energy source in urban environments, fireplace design adapted to meet changing needs in efficiency, cleanliness, and scale. Innovations such as the cast iron insert and the Rumford fireplace — developed by Benjamin Thompson —reflected this transformation. Designed to reduce smoke and increase thermal efficiency, these new models significantly improved the performance of domestic heating, marking a clear departure from the large, inefficient hearths of the pre-industrial era.
The Premium fire place heater. Image via Boston Public Library under CC BY 2.0
然而，變化不僅限于技術層面——它們也是空間性和意識形態上的。中產階級的興起和城市家居生活的擴展重新定義了家，催生了圍繞隱私、層級和功能組織的新類型。與曾經以單一壁爐為中心、聚焦公共生活的模式不同，維多利亞時代的住宅擁有多個小型壁爐，分布在客廳、臥室和書房等處。每個壁爐服務于特定的房間和功能，反映了家庭內部空間的分隔化，以及文化上對個人舒適度和私人空間日益增長的重視。
壁爐在家庭中的這種擴散也象征著社會規范的轉變。文藝復興時期的壁爐曾是公共威望的宣言，而維多利亞時代的壁爐則轉向內省——成為體面與家庭優雅的私人標志。這一時期的壁爐圍邊和壁爐架通常裝飾華麗，但卻是批量生產的，結合了鑄鐵、瓷磚和木制裝飾元素。因此，壁爐變成了一種混合體：既是工業進步的象征，也是資產階級品味的體現。
Yet the changes were not only technological — they were spatial and ideological. The rise of the middle class and the expansion of urban domesticity redefined the home, giving rise to new typologies organized around privacy, hierarchy, and function. In contrast to the single-hearth model that once centered communal life, Victorian homes featured multiple smaller fireplaces distributed across parlors, bedrooms, and studies. Each fireplace catered to a specific room and function, mirroring the compartmentalization of the domestic interior and the growing cultural emphasis on inpidual comfort and personal space.
This proliferation of hearths across the home also symbolized shifting social norms. Where the Renaissance fireplace had been a statement of public prestige, the Victorian hearth was inward-looking — a private marker of respectability and domestic refinement. Surrounds and mantels in this period were often highly decorative, yet mass-produced, combining cast iron with ceramic tiles and wooden ornamentation. The fireplace thus became a hybrid object: at once a symbol of industrial progress and an embodiment of bourgeois taste.
Hub Franklin Open Stove. Image via Boston Public Library under CC BY 2.0
城市化進一步塑造了壁爐的空間邏輯。在英國排屋或奧斯曼時期的巴黎公寓等高密度住宅開發中，對緊湊、標準化供暖解決方案的需求影響了建筑布局、施工方法和材料選擇。煙囪群成為了一個決定性元素，通常在單元間共享，并融入建筑的結構邏輯中。這些發展將壁爐嵌入了一個更廣泛的基礎設施思維體系，這與集中化城市服務和市政規劃的興起相呼應。
Urbanization further shaped the spatial logic of fireplaces. In dense housing developments such as terraced houses in Britain or Haussmann-era apartments in Paris, the need for compact and standardized heating solutions influenced architectural layout, construction methods, and material choices. The chimney stack became a defining element, often shared between units and integrated into the structural logic of the building. These developments embedded the fireplace into a broader system of infrastructural thinking that paralleled the rise of centralized urban services and municipal planning.
Section of a Parisian Building 1845. Image via Bibliotheque Nationale de France
盡管如此，壁爐的象征共鳴依然延續。在19世紀的文學和圖像中，它仍然是道德美德、家庭和情感溫暖的有力象征——在快速變革中的一個精神錨點。建筑師們調和了這種二元性，他們擁抱工業技術，同時保留壁爐作為家庭生活象征核心的地位。從這個意義上說，工業時代并未拋棄壁爐的意義，而是在新興的關于進步、隱私和生產的敘事中重塑了它。
抽象時代的火
隨著20世紀通過抽象化、功能性和空間創新的視角重新定義建筑，壁爐也隨之轉變。它不再是必需品的核心元素，而成為一個概念協商的場所——一件通過現代主義的形式清晰度和倫理嚴謹性重新詮釋的傳統遺存。這一時期的建筑師面臨著一個悖論：如何將一個本質上懷舊的元素融入一個以斷裂、進步和形式簡化為基礎的運動中。答案在于重新定義壁爐：不是將其視為歷史主義的殘余，而是作為一種符合現代建筑原則的雕塑性、空間性和象征性的裝置。
Still, the symbolic resonance of the hearth endured. In 19th-century literature and imagery, it remained a powerful emblem of moral virtue, family, and emotional warmth—an anchor amid rapid change. Architects negotiated this duality, embracing industrial techniques while preserving the fireplace as a symbolic core of domestic life. In this sense, the Industrial Age did not discard the fireplace's meaning but reframed it within the emerging narratives of progress, privacy, and production.
Fire in the Age of Abstraction
As the 20th century redefined architecture through the lens of abstraction, functionality, and spatial innovation, the fireplace too transformed. No longer a central element of necessity, it became a site of conceptual negotiation — an artifact of tradition reinterpreted through the formal clarity and ethical rigor of modernism. Architects of this period were confronted with a paradox: how to incorporate an inherently nostalgic element into a movement premised on rupture, progress, and formal reduction. The answer lay in redefining the fireplace not as a historicist residue, but as a sculptural, spatial, and symbolic device consistent with the tenets of modern architecture.
Gunnar Asplunt / Stennäs Summer House. Image © Sune Sundahl via Wikipedia under Public Domain
Gunnar Asplunt / Stennäs Summer House. Image via Wikipedia under Public Domain
阿道夫·路斯（Adolf Loos），一位裝飾的激烈批評者和現代主義思想的基礎聲音，是這一轉變的典范。在他的Bosendorferstrasse公寓中，壁爐被剝離了裝飾性的點綴，簡化為一個嵌入精心構圖的室內的基本體量。它的存在既堅定又沉靜——體現了路斯的信念，即空間特性并非源于裝飾，而是源于形式與材料的構造。這里的壁爐既是熱源，也是空間校準點，以最簡潔的方式錨定了家居體驗。
Adolf Loos, a fierce critic of ornament and a foundational voice in modernist thought, exemplified this shift. In his Apartment Bosendorferstrasse, the fireplace is stripped of decorative embellishment, reduced to an elemental volume embedded within a carefully composed interior. Its presence is assertive yet quiet — an embodiment of Loos's belief that spatial character emerges not through ornamentation but through the tectonics of form and material. The fireplace here functions as a source of warmth but as a point of spatial calibration, anchoring the domestic experience with minimal means.
Adolf Loos / Bosendorferstrasse, Wohnung Adolf Loos. Image © Bösendorferstraße (früher Giselastraße) 3/5. Stock, Kaminnische, schräge Innenansicht by Martin Gerlach jun. (Künstler_in) - Albertina, Austria - Public Domain
弗蘭克·勞埃德·賴特（Frank Lloyd Wright）雖然秉承不同的哲學傳統，同樣將壁爐置于建筑構圖的中心。在羅比住宅（Robie House）中，壁爐不僅僅是房間內的一個物件，而是整個平面布局的組織原則。它位于空間流線的交匯處，定義了開放式平面布局的內部空間，并強化了草原風格的水平感。對賴特而言，壁爐是一個象征性和結構性的核心——是對原始壁爐的現代重新詮釋，以磚塊和幾何形式重塑。
Frank Lloyd Wright, while operating from a distinct philosophical tradition, also placed the fireplace at the heart of architectural composition. In the Robie House, the hearth is not simply an object within a room, but the organizing principle of the entire plan. It stands at the intersection of spatial flows, defining the open-plan interior and reinforcing the horizontal emphasis of the Prairie style. For Wright, the fireplace was a symbolic and structural core — a modern reinterpretation of the primitive hearth, recast in brick and geometry.
Frederick C. Robie House / Frank Lloyd Wright. Image © Sailko via Wikipedia under CC BY 3.0
路易斯·康（Louis Kahn）延續了這一軌跡，賦予壁爐一種超越功能的莊重感。在Korman住宅中，壁爐宛如一座沉靜的紀念碑，是家庭領域內的寧靜中心。其材料的堅實感和位置喚起儀式感與永恒性，反映了康對靜謐、秩序和集體記憶更廣泛的關注。對康而言，建筑旨在創造能夠接納光線、時間和人類存在的空間，而壁爐則成為了承載這些無形維度的容器。
Louis Kahn continued this trajectory, imbuing the fireplace with a gravitas that transcended function. In the Korman House, the hearth stands as a quiet monument, a center of stillness within the domestic realm. Its material solidity and placement evoke ritual and permanence, reflecting Kahn's broader preoccupation with silence, order, and communal memory. For Kahn, architecture was about creating spaces that could receive light, time, and human presence, and the fireplace became a vessel for these intangible dimensions.
Louis Kahn's Korman Residence Interior Renovation / Jennifer Post Design. Image © Pieter Estersohn
Muuratsalo Experimental House / Alvar Aalto. Image © Nico Saieh
在北歐現代主義中，阿爾瓦·阿爾托（Alvar Aalto）和古爾納·阿斯普朗德（Gunnar Asplund）等建筑師將壁爐視為空間雕塑和家庭標志。阿爾托在穆拉察洛（Muuratsalo）的實驗住宅（Experimental House）利用壁爐來構建庭院，創造了一個半封閉的沉思空間，模糊了室內與景觀的邊界。壁爐成為了聚集和內省的場所，錨定了一個探索非正式性、觸感和氛圍的設計。同樣，阿斯普朗德的Stennäs避暑別墅將壁爐重新詮釋為一個雕塑性的姿態——一個抽象的形式，既組織著房間空間，又表達出一種親密感和人體尺度感。建筑師借此確認，即使在技術抽象化的時代，建筑仍必須回應人類的基本需求——對溫暖、聚集以及賦予空間以意義的精神錨點的需求。
邁向當代壁爐
在當代建筑中，壁爐已不再是必需品，但它們仍保持著空間性、社會性和象征性的關聯。它們在技術先進且具有生態意識的建筑中的存在，反映了人類對與他人、與場所、以及與儀式建立連接的持久需求。這導致了壁爐的新詮釋，創新與傳統在其中以微妙而富有意義的方式相遇。
In Nordic modernism, architects like Alvar Aalto and Gunnar Asplund engaged with the hearth as a spatial sculpture and a domestic icon. Aalto's Experimental House in Muuratsalo uses the fireplace to structure the courtyard, creating a semi-enclosed, contemplative space that blurs the boundary between interior and landscape. The hearth becomes a site of gathering and introspection, anchoring a design that explores informality, tactility, and atmosphere. Similarly, Asplund's Stennäs Summer House reinterprets the fireplace as a sculptural gesture — an abstracted form that organizes the room while articulating a sense of intimacy and human scale. In doing so, the architect affirmed that even in an age of technological abstraction, architecture must still respond to fundamental human needs — for warmth, gathering, and anchoring space with meaning.
Toward a Contemporary Hearth
In contemporary architecture, fireplaces are no longer essential, yet they retain spatial, social, and symbolic relevance. Their presence in technologically advanced and ecologically conscious buildings reflects a persistent human need for connection with others, with place, and with ritual. This has led to new interpretations of the hearth, where innovation and tradition meet in subtle, meaningful ways.
Atrium House / Tham & Videgård Arkitekter. Image © Åke E- son Lindman
技術進步已將壁爐從其歷史束縛中解放出來。由生物乙醇、電力或回收燃料驅動的生態供暖系統，在形式和擺放位置上提供了更大的靈活性，擺脫了對煙囪和傳統通風的依賴。這些替代方案反映了建筑界對可持續性、資源效率和材料倫理更廣泛的關注。然而，即使在這種技術格局改變的背景下，壁爐仍繼續充當著空間錨點的角色。它在開放式平面布局中營造親密感，在流動的環境中提供片刻的寧靜，并在日益數字化的世界中保留了一層可觸摸的、感官性的體驗。
Technological advancements have liberated the fireplace from its historical constraints. Ecological systems — powered by bioethanol, electricity, or recycled fuels — allow for greater flexibility in form and placement, removing the dependence on chimneys and traditional ventilation. These alternatives reflect a broader architectural concern with sustainability, resource efficiency, and material ethics. Yet even in this altered technical landscape, the hearth continues to serve as a spatial anchor. It fosters intimacy within open plans, offers moments of stillness in otherwise fluid environments, and preserves a tactile, sensory layer of experience in an increasingly digital world.
Arcus Center for Social Justice Leadership / Studio Gang . Image © Steve Hall for Hedrich Blessing
與此同時，壁爐也重新成為集體認同的場所。在甘工作室（Studio Gang）設計的Arcus社會正義領導中心（Arcus Center for Social Justice Leadership），中央壁爐兼具實際和象征意義，圍繞著對話和社群來組織空間。在這里，建筑不僅僅是為壁爐提供了容身之所；它更是圍繞壁爐而構建，仿佛在重申在這個碎片化的時代里，身體在場和共享空間的重要性。
在其他環境中，從山林小屋到市政空間，壁爐都充當著將居住者根植于時間和地點的建筑姿態。它們喚起的是連續性而非懷舊，是意義而不僅僅是功用。
At the same time, the fireplace has re-emerged as a locus for collective identity. In Studio Gang's Arcus Center for Social Justice Leadership, the central fireplace is both literal and symbolic, organizing space around dialogue and community. Here, the architecture does not merely accommodate a fireplace; it is structured around it as if reaffirming the importance of physical presence and shared space in an age of fragmentation.
In other settings, from mountain cabins to civic spaces, fireplaces act as architectural gestures that root occupants in time and place. They evoke continuity rather than nostalgia, meaning rather than mere utility.
B Garden / 3andwich Design / He Wei Studio. Image © Weiqi Jin
壁爐作為一種類型，已經超越了其功能性起源，成為一種敘事工具——一種傳達情感深度和文化延續性的工具。從原始的火到今天抽象的無煙道形態，它的演變映射了建筑自身的演變：適應性強、富有創造力，且本質上是人性的。壁爐，以其多種形式，持續提供著這種可能性。它的未來不在于懷舊，而在于其容納復雜性的能力：同時兼具生態性與情感性，創新性與古老性，私密性與集體性。最終，它依然保持著其始終如一的身份——一個人們聚集的中心，而建筑也由此開始。
As a typology, the fireplace has transcended its functional origins to become a narrative tool — one that communicates emotional depth and cultural continuity. From primitive fire circles to today's abstract, ventless forms, its evolution mirrors that of architecture itself: adaptive, inventive, and fundamentally human. The hearth, in its many forms, continues to offer that possibility. Its future lies not in nostalgia, but in its capacity to hold complexity: to be at once ecological and emotional, innovative and ancient, private and collective. In the end, it remains what it always was — a center around which we gather, and from which architecture begins.
Cabin Norderhov / Atelier Oslo. Image © Lars Petter Pettersen
Gunnar Asplunt / Stennäs Summer House. Image © Sune Sundahl via Wikipedia under Public Domain
Louis Kahn's Korman Residence Interior Renovation / Jennifer Post Design. Image © Matt Wargo
Eigen Haard. Spaarndammerplantsoen, Amsterdam Original state, 1916. Image Courtesy of Wikimedia
Çatalhöyük Archaeological discoveries, Murat Özsoy 1958. Image © Murat Özsoy 1958, via Wikipedia under CC BY-SA 4.0
LANDHAUS / Thomas Kröger Architekt. Image © Thomas Heimann
Muuratsalo Experimental House / Alvar Aalto. Image © Nico Saieh
Arcus Center for Social Justice Leadership / Studio Gang . Image © Steve Hall for Hedrich Blessing
Frederick C. Robie House / Frank Lloyd Wright. Image via Wikipedia under Public Domain
本文版權歸腿腿教學網及原創作者所有，未經授權，謝絕轉載。
上一篇：向地鐵“偷”空間：摩根大通新總部的24根巨柱與它的懸浮術
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